By Matija Šerić
Hadrian’s Wall, also known as Hadrian’s Defensive Wall or the Roman Wall, is a monumental structure built in the second century in Britain, an integral part of the then-world superpower, the Roman Empire. The wall was constructed during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, one of the most famous Roman emperors, whose rule lasted from 117 to 138 AD. This impressive wall, approximately 117.5 kilometers long, stretched across the entire width of northern England near the Scottish border, from the River Tyne in the east to the Solway Firth in the west. It represented a boundary between civilizations and empires in the past, and its influence can still be felt today.
The Roman Conquest of Britain
At its peak, the Roman Empire spanned three continents, covering much of Europe, Western Asia (the Middle East), and North Africa. In other words, the Romans had conquered most of what historians refer to as the “Old World.” Besides expanding their borders through wars and negotiations, the Romans had to secure newly acquired territories, building defensive walls and fortifications for this purpose.
When the Romans first set foot in Britain, specifically in southeastern England in 43 AD, they encountered several tribes at the Iron Age level of development. Local tribes had already heard of the Romans, especially of the conquests of the legendary Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC, and there had been some contact. At that time, British tribes successfully resisted the invaders, but in the 1st century, they were not united enough to resist effectively. The Romans easily defeated them and established a base in Colchester in southeastern England, planning the conquest of the entire island. By 47 AD, eleven tribes had submitted to the Romans, who then controlled the territory from south of the Humber to the mouth of the River Severn on the England-Wales border. From there, the Romans launched campaigns into Wales and northwards. By 84 AD, they had reached the Moray Firth, approximately 240 km into present-day Scotland.
Roman Advances
According to some historical sources, the Romans even reached the Kintyre Peninsula, and Roman legions penetrated the northern highlands of Scotland. Despite this, the northernmost point where Roman forces established permanent bases was Moray Firth. Had the Romans continued their advance and conquered the entire British Isles, the history of Britain would have taken a very different course.
The Need to Defend Britain
However, Roman holdings across Europe, Africa, and Asia were constantly threatened, and legions had to be sent to defend critical areas. Britain, as a relatively new province of the Roman Empire, faced continuous threats from northern tribes known as the Picts, Saxons, and Scots. To protect their territories in Britain and consolidate control, the Romans needed to establish a sustainable frontier and construct barriers for effective defense. Emperor Hadrian, known for his pragmatic policy of preserving the empire’s borders rather than continuous expansion, decided to build a wall. Roman forces withdrew from Scotland to the area corresponding to the modern England-Scotland border, fortified the position, and constructed Hadrian’s Wall.
Construction and Structure of the Wall
Construction of Hadrian’s Wall began in 122 AD and took several years, involving around 15,000 soldiers. The wall was 117.5 km long, approximately 3 meters wide, and up to 4.5 meters high, built of stone and earth. In front of the wall ran a ditch 4 meters deep and 9 meters wide, with a spiked fence positioned between the ditch and the wall. Small gateways were spaced along the wall. Roughly every Roman mile (about 1.48 km), small forts called milecastles were built. Between these small forts were watchtowers (around 80 in total) used for surveillance and communication between garrisons.
Larger forts were located at key points along the wall, housing bigger military garrisons. Among the most notable were Housesteads (Vercovicium), Birdoswald (Banna), and Chesters (Cilurnum). These forts were equipped with all necessary facilities for prolonged stays, including barracks, storage buildings, hospitals, and even baths.
Function and Significance of the Wall
The wall was necessary because the landscape offered no mountains or rivers to act as a natural barrier. Hadrian’s Wall was not just a military defense; it also served important administrative and symbolic roles. Since the Romans had failed to conquer all of Britain, the wall marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire in Britain and defended the territories they had gained from the barbarian peoples living north of the island. The wall also functioned as a checkpoint for trade and migration. Various gates controlled the movement of people and goods, and customs posts allowed Rome to collect duties on goods crossing the border. Symbolically, the wall represented the power and military strength of the Roman Empire, demonstrating Rome’s ability to build monumental structures and maintain order and security along its frontiers.
The Wall – A Starting Point for the Development of British Nations
For centuries, the wall marked the boundary between the Roman province of Britain to the south and the Celtic lands of Caledonia to the north. More precisely, Hadrian’s Wall remained in full operation for about two and a half centuries. South of the wall, Romanized culture and civilization flourished, while north of it, the traditional Celtic way of life persisted. Some English and Scottish people jokingly say it is still that way today, even though the wall no longer exists. Most importantly, the wall helped shape the future state that would become the United Kingdom. South of the wall, a Romanized culture and social order (Pax Romana) developed, with lively urban life and the construction of roads and cities, while north of it, traditional Celtic culture endured.
It is a common misconception that Hadrian’s Wall marks the modern England-Scotland border. The wall is entirely within England and never crossed the current border. On the western end, near the village of Bowness-on-Solway, it is less than 1 km south of the border; on the eastern end, it is 109 km away. However, since the Romans never conquered Wales or Scotland as they did England, these two regions would historically continue to differ from England. In this way, the wall laid the foundations for the separation of the Scots and the English.
The Division of Britain
By the early 3rd century, southern England was named Britannia Superior because it was closer to Rome, with London as its capital. Northern England became Britannia Inferior, with York as its capital. By the late 3rd and early 4th century, Britain was further divided: the south became Britannia Prima, north of Hadrian’s Wall was Maxima Caesariensis, the Midlands became Flavia Caesariensis, and Wales was Britannia Secunda. These Latin names did not survive, but they left a mark on Britain’s historical division.
