Wahhabism is one of the most controversial and radical movements within the Islamic world. Its very mention sparks fierce divisions and heated debates among Muslims themselves, as well as within broader society. The unexpected triumph of jihadists in Syria in December 2024, marked by the rise to power of the Islamist group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, has once again brought radical Islamism into the spotlight.
As a theological-political movement—indeed, as an ideology—Wahhabism emerged in the 18th century on the Arabian Peninsula. The movement is based on an ultra-conservative interpretation of Islam and advocates a return to its original roots. The name Wahhabism (a label rejected by its adherents) is derived from its founder, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, whose ideas sparked a wave of reform but also met with fierce resistance from other Muslims. Some regard the movement as a revival of pure, original, and uncorrupted Islam, while others accuse it of rigidity, selective interpretation of the faith, and intolerance of diversity.
Wahhabism is not only a theological current but also a political tool that has shaped the history of Saudi Arabia and influenced its relations with the wider world. Its close association with radical Islamism, extremism, and terrorist organizations (such as Al-Qaeda, ISIS, Al-Nusra Front, and Hayat Tahrir al-Sham) has further exposed it to global criticism.
The Origins of Wahhabism
Wahhabism emerged in the 18th century as a spontaneous response to what its founder, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, saw as the moral and religious decline of Muslim society. The period in which it developed was marked by deep internal crises in the Islamic world, the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the expansion of European colonialism in the Middle East, and the spread of religious innovations that deviated from the original Islamic tradition.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) was born in the small village of Uyayna in the region of Najd, in what is today Saudi Arabia. From an early age, he showed a keen interest in religion. He began his education under the guidance of his father, a respected Islamic scholar, and later continued his studies in Mecca, Medina, and Basra. During his studies, he was exposed to various interpretations of Islam and developed a strong aversion to practices he considered deviations from the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was particularly influenced by the ideas of earlier Islamic scholars, especially Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328), who advocated a return to the foundations of Islam and strongly opposed idolatry, Sufism, and the veneration of Muslim saints. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab argued that Muslims must renew their faith by returning to the original principles of Islam (fundamentalism), as preached in the Qur’an and Hadith. The reforms he preached included:
- A struggle against shirk (associating partners with God, such as the veneration of saints, which he considered a form of polytheism);
- The purification of Islamic practices (eliminating all innovations not directly affirmed by the Qur’an or the Sunnah);
- Absolute monotheism (strict preservation of tawhid, i.e., belief in the absolute oneness of God).
Alliance with Ibn Saud
After being expelled from his native village of Uyaynah for his reformist ideas, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab moved to the nearby town of Diriyah. There, in 1744, he forged a pivotal alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud, a local tribal leader. This alliance was the foundation of Wahhabism’s future success. The agreement between the two men was simple: Ibn Saud would provide military and political support for the spread of Wahhabi doctrine, while Ibn Abd al-Wahhab would grant religious legitimacy to Ibn Saud’s rule. Their collaboration led to a series of military conquests aimed at spreading Wahhabism throughout the Arabian Peninsula. These conquests were often brutal, including the destruction of tombs and Sufi shrines that Wahhabis considered acts of idolatry. By the end of the 18th century, Wahhabism had spread across much of central and eastern Arabia.
Patronage of the Saudi State
However, the spread of these ideas was not without resistance. The Ottoman Empire, which nominally ruled the region, saw Wahhabism as a threat to its authority and the Islamic teachings it promoted. The Ottoman Sultan, with the help of the Egyptian leader Muhammad Ali of Egypt, launched a series of military campaigns against the Wahhabis in the 19th century, temporarily reducing their influence. Although Wahhabism suffered a temporary defeat, the movement was revived in the mid-19th century under the leadership of the House of Saud. Finally, in the early 20th century, Abdulaziz Ibn Saud managed to gain control over the entire Arabian Peninsula, proclaiming the foundation of Saudi Arabia in 1932. The Saudi royal family used Wahhabi doctrine to legitimize its rule, while Wahhabi scholars played a key role in formulating state laws based on Sharia. This symbiosis of politics and religion resulted in a highly conservative society, where cultural and social norms were shaped by the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam.
The Controversial Term “Wahhabism”
The term “Wahhabism” comes from the movement’s founder, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, but it is largely rejected by the movement’s adherents, who see it as a derogatory label used by outsiders, especially Shiites. Followers of the Wahhabi movement prefer to call themselves muwahhidun (“those who profess monotheism”), emphasizing their commitment to the purity of belief in tawhid (the oneness of God). Other terms used to describe members of the movement include “monotheists” and “unitarians.” Wahhabis also frequently identify as Salafis. Instead of using the term “Wahhabism”, they opt for Salafism (Arabic: salafiyya)—a broader term denoting a return to the original teachings of Islam as practiced by the first three generations of Muslims, known as salaf al-salih (the pious predecessors). Wahhabis may also call themselves simply “Muslims” (without any additional qualifiers), as they believe their ideology represents the purest form of Islam.
Wahhabism Documentary
Wahhabism and Saudi Arabia – A Political-Religious Symbiosis
Since 1932, Wahhabism has enjoyed the patronage of the Saudi state. It became the official ideology of the new state, used by the Saudis to advance their political, economic, and religious interests in dealings with the outside world. One of the most significant aspects of modern Wahhabism is its global expansion. From the 1970s onward, thanks to immense oil wealth, Saudi Arabia has funded the construction of mosques, Islamic schools (madrasas), and cultural centers across the globe. All of these projects have been carried out with one goal in mind: promoting the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, often leading to conflicts with local Islamic traditions.
The campaign to promote Wahhabism has had—and continues to have—a major impact on Muslim communities in Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America. In many cases, Wahhabism has led to the marginalization of Sufi and Shiite communities, which Wahhabis consider deviant from true Islam. The spread of Wahhabism has also changed the internal dynamics of Sunni Islam, replacing more tolerant local practices with a more rigid version of the faith.
A State Governed by Wahhabi Principles
According to the teachings of the Wahhabi movement, a nation-state should be organized in a way that strictly adheres to Islamic principles based on the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Wahhabism, as a theological-political movement, advocates a model of state and society in which Sharia law is applied literally, with an emphasis on monotheism (tawhid) and the elimination of religious innovations (bid‘a). Secularism or any division between religion and state (such as the Christian principle of “Render unto Caesar what is Caesar’s, and unto God what is God’s”) is rejected as an unacceptable innovation that deviates from original Islam.
Wahhabism does not support the concept of nationalism (including Arab nationalism), as it considers the Muslim community (ummah) to be more important than national identities. National borders and ethnic identities are, according to Wahhabi interpretation, secondary to the shared Islamic faith.
However, unlike some ideologies that advocate the withering away of the state (e.g., communism), the state is very important to Wahhabis, as it is the entity responsible for enforcing adherence to Islamic norms. This includes the establishment of state institutions that oversee public morality, such as the Hisbah (religious or moral police), which monitors citizens’ behavior according to Islamic values (e.g., dress codes, prayers, prohibition of alcohol).
The ruler of the state (caliph, emir, or king) must be a Muslim who acts as the guardian of Islam and the law. According to Wahhabi ideology, the ruler is accountable to God and the Islamic community, and the people are expected to obey the ruler as long as he does not violate the basic principles of Islam. The ruler should ensure that the state does not deviate from Islamic teachings and should eliminate all forms of heresy.
Wahhabism emphasizes the removal of practices and traditions not directly confirmed in the Qur’an and the Sunnah. This applies to many cultural customs, Sufi rituals, the veneration of saints, or the construction of elaborate tombs. The state should actively promote “pure” Islamic practice and eliminate anything considered a deviation. Islam must be the only religion in public life. While non-Muslims may be allowed to live in an Islamic state, their rights are limited and subject to Islamic rules (e.g., paying the jizya – a tax for non-Muslims). Muslims are expected to fully comply with Islamic laws, and deviations are strictly punished.
Gender Roles
Wahhabism promotes traditional gender roles, with women holding a conventional status. Women must wear the hijab or niqab and follow strict dress codes. There are restrictions on their movement and on gender mixing. Although women are granted certain rights, such as access to education, their role in society is primarily limited to the family and the household.
The economy must also conform to Islamic principles, including the prohibition of interest (riba), the promotion of zakat (obligatory almsgiving), and the encouragement of trade in line with Islamic regulations.
The closest contemporary example of a Wahhabi model state is Saudi Arabia, where Wahhabism is the official state ideology.
Author: Matija Šerić
